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                "content": "Perovskite solar cells have emerged as promising photovoltaic technology due to their remarkable efficiency and cost-effectiveness. However, various defects within the perovskite layer significantly hamper device performance. This review provides a comprehensive examination of these defects, encompassing point defects, surface irregularities, grain boundaries, and ion migration, elucidating their detrimental impact on device efficiency, particularly through increased charge carrier recombination. Through the establishment of a detailed schematic model, we illustrate how these defects influence the tuning of critical photovoltaic parameters such as open circuit voltage (V oc ) and current density (J sc ), offering deeper insights into their effects on solar cell performance. Furthermore, recent advancements in defect passivation strategies are explored, focusing on surface passivation techniques such as interactions with Lewis acids and bases, treatment with zwitterion molecules, and the utilization of ammonia salts. Moreover, this review discusses the challenges and opportunities associated with defect passivation, providing valuable insights into future research directions aimed at enhancing the stability and efficiency of perovskite solar cells. By consolidating existing knowledge and offering innovative perspectives, this work aims to contribute significantly to the advancement of photovoltaics and defect engineering.",
                "title": "Nature of defects and their passivation engineering for advancements in perovskite solar cells",
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                "content": "Despite significant advancements in perovskite solar cells, their defect states remain a critical bottleneck limiting further breakthroughs in efficiency and stability. Herein, an omnidirectional multi-type defect passivation strategy is judiciously proposed, which achieves comprehensive defect passivation within the bulk, at surfaces, and throughout interfaces by introducing two organic potassium salts, potassium 4-formylphenyltrifluoroborate and potassium propylxanthate, into the perovskite precursor and interfacial layer, respectively. The highly electronegative functional groups from the organic anion moiety can not only form hydrogen bonds with positively charged FA⁺, but also act as typical Lewis bases to stabilize uncoordinated Pb2⁺ defects. Meanwhile, the free K⁺ can suppress internal ion migration by binding with iodide ions, thereby comprehensively eliminating various defects that are responsible for non-radiative recombination in the device. Ultimately, the device achieves a remarkable PCE power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.78% with a negligible hysteresis and an open-circuit voltage loss of ≈349 mV. Impressively, benefiting from the hydrophobic interface protection and throughout defect elimination, the resultant devices exhibit admirable stabilities, with retaining 88.7% of its initial PCE after 1100 h of continuous thermal stress at 85 °C and 86.8% after 1400 h of aging under 40 ± 5% relative humidity, respectively.",
                "title": "Omnidirectional Multi-Type Defect Passivation Enables Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells via Dual Organic Potassium Salts",
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                "content": "Perovskite solar cells prepared by inorganic-organic three-dimensional hybrid have good power conversion efficiency, but their operational stability remains a major challenge for commercialization. The defect of perovskite is an important factor restricting its charge dynamics and stability. Here, the rare earth metal chloride CeCl3 is introduced into perovskite solution to passivate the defects, where the Pb2+ part of the B position is replaced by Ce3+. The prepared films have the characteristics of increasing grain size, enhancing carrier mobility and excellent crystallinity. Meanwhile, via passivating interface defects and improving carrier transport capacity, the generation of non-radiative recombination is reduced, the carrier migration length is extended, and the device performance is improved. The results show that the PCE of the standard device is only 65 % after 2880 h of N2 atmosphere at room temperature, while the efficiency of the device doped with CeCl3 can remain at 93 %. When the unencapsulated sample was placed in an air environment (40–60 % humidity), the control sample was reduced to 72 % at 1060 h, while the CeCl3 was maintained at 87 %. Additionally, the reduction of residual stress in the perovskite layer also provides good bending stability for the flexible target device. These results show that the incorporation of rare earth metal ions is an effective way to stabilize and improve the efficiency of the device.",
                "title": "Cerium rare-earth ions reinforced built-in electric field to enable efficient carrier extraction for highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells",
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                "content": "Unencapsulated perovskite solar cells with full CSA-Cl passivation retain 80\\% of their initial efficiency during continuous maximum-power-point tracking under illumination in ambient air at 50\\% relative humidity over 4 h, whereas the control device fails completely within the same period. The full-passivated device also exhibits a gradual initial increase in photocurrent, followed by slow degradation, demonstrating that the reduced defect density substantially suppresses defect-induced perovskite degradation and enables long-term device operation in air, which is advantageous for in situ optoelectronic characterisations.",
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                "title": "CSA-Cl-passivated PVSCs remain stable in humid air",
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                        "content": "The performance and operational stability of perovskite solar cells (PVSCs) are severely limited by lattice defects in the bulk and on the surface of the halide perovskite layer, which act as nonradiative recombination centres and accelerate degradation. Existing defect passivation strategies using ionic additives have predominantly targeted specific individual defect species—such as undercoordinated Pb²⁺, halide vacancies, or organic cation vacancies—while only a few attempts have addressed dual defects. A comprehensive approach capable of simultaneously passivating the multiple defect types present in both the bulk and the surface of the perovskite film, and thereby reducing the overall defect density to improve carrier dynamics, has not been demonstrated. This lack of a full-defect-passivation strategy has prevented the realisation of highly efficient inverted planar PVSCs that can operate stably in ambient air, a capability critically needed for reliable device physics characterisations and for accelerating the assessment of device quality.",
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                        "content": "Perovskite solar cells are notoriously unstable under ambient conditions because moisture- and oxygen-assisted degradation is accelerated by defect sites, grain boundaries, and ion migration. Standard long-term stability tests require integrated inert-atmosphere setups, and the inability to operate devices reliably in air hinders widespread in situ photophysical studies and rapid laboratory evaluation of device quality. A passivation approach that directly enables stable, long-term operation of unencapsulated devices in humid air by passifying the defect-mediated degradation pathways had not been achieved. Such air-operable devices are essential for bridging the gap between laboratory studies and practical deployment.",
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                        "content": "Under the same 50% relative-humidity maximum-power-point protocol, the unpassivated control device fails within 4 h while the full-passivated device still retains most of its initial efficiency.",
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                        "title": "The control-device collapse under the same ambient MPP protocol sharpens the air-stability claim",
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                "content": "In perovskite solar cells, achieving high power conversion efficiency and long-term stability critically depends on excellent perovskite crystallinity and high-quality interfaces at both the electron-transport-layer (ETL)/perovskite and perovskite/hole-transport-layer (HTL) junctions. Defects at these interfaces introduce non-radiative recombination centers that limit open-circuit voltage and fill factor, while grain boundaries and surface imperfections provide pathways for moisture and oxygen ingress, degrading device stability. Existing surface-passivation strategies for perovskite films typically employ insulating polymers or organic amine halogen salts that coordinate with Pb2+ ions to passivate defects. Although these materials can improve crystallinity and reduce recombination, their intrinsic insulating nature limits the conductivity of the perovskite active layer and can raise the interfacial energy barrier, ultimately restricting charge transport and extraction. Moreover, most reported passivation schemes modify only one interface—either the ETL/perovskite or perovskite/HTL junction—leaving the opposite interface unpassivated and prone to recombination and degradation. There is therefore a need for a passivation material that simultaneously combines efficient defect passivation, good electrical conductivity, and the ability to be applied to both perovskite interfaces, in order to fully exploit the potential of interface engineering for high-performance, stable perovskite solar cells.",
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                        "content": "The perovskite absorber layer in solar cells inevitably contains point defects and grain-boundary traps that act as non-radiative recombination centers, limiting the achievable open-circuit voltage and fill factor. Quantifying and reducing these defects is essential for approaching the theoretical efficiency limits. Many passivation agents can partially heal defects, but often they are insulators that impede carrier transport or are effective only at one type of interface. A passivation strategy that drastically lowers the bulk and interfacial trap densities across both sides of the perovskite, while simultaneously raising the recombination resistance, would represent a substantial advance toward high-performance devices.",
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                        "content": "Perovskite solar cells are notoriously sensitive to moisture, oxygen, and heat, which cause rapid degradation of the perovskite layer and the interfaces. Grain boundaries and defective surfaces provide primary pathways for water and oxygen ingress, accelerating decomposition. While various encapsulation and hydrophobic passivation strategies have been developed, many of them rely on insulating materials that compromise electronic performance. A passivation approach that simultaneously improves both the intrinsic stability (via higher crystal quality) and the extrinsic stability (via increased surface hydrophobicity), without introducing insulating barriers, would extend device lifetime under ambient conditions and is highly sought after for practical applications.",
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                        "content": "In perovskite solar cells, the dominant approach to passivate defects and improve interfacial properties is to introduce an organic or polymer layer at a single interface—typically either between the perovskite and the electron-transport layer or between the perovskite and the hole-transport layer. Such unilateral schemes leave the other interface unaffected, so that non-radiative recombination, energy-level misalignment, and stability issues persist at the unmodified junction. Moreover, commonly used passivating organics are insulating, which can hinder charge extraction and raise resistive barriers. An effective passivation method that can be applied simultaneously to both the perovskite/ETL and perovskite/HTL interfaces, while maintaining sufficient electrical conductivity, would address both limitations but has not been demonstrated.",
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                "content": "Solution-processed halide perovskite films for solar cells are polycrystalline in nature, which inevitably introduces a high density of defects at surfaces and grain boundaries during the conventional low-temperature, fast-crystallization deposition process. These defect states act as trap-assisted charge carrier recombination centers, causing severe energy loss that limits the open-circuit voltage and overall power conversion efficiency of perovskite solar cells. Moreover, these defective sites provide pathways for moisture and oxygen infiltration from the ambient environment, critically jeopardizing the long-term operational stability of the devices under humidity, ultraviolet illumination, and thermal stress. While various passivation strategies have been explored—including fullerene derivatives, cross-linkable organic molecules, redox-active ion pairs, phenethylammonium salts, thiadiazole derivatives, thiazole additives, and carboxyl-group-containing molecules—there remains a pressing need for effective, simple, and commodity-chemical-based passivation agents that can simultaneously coordinate with undercoordinated Pb²⁺ ions to suppress defect states, modulate crystal growth for improved film morphology, and confer robust stability against multiple environmental stressors, all within a conventional mesoporous device architecture using methylammonium lead iodide as the absorber layer.",
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                        "id": "gcn_f703c23ffc864c31",
                        "content": "The commercial viability of perovskite solar cells is critically hindered by their poor stability under operational stressors: ultraviolet light induces photocatalytic degradation of the perovskite absorber, ambient humidity drives hydrolytic decomposition into PbI₂ and volatile organic species, and elevated temperatures accelerate both ion migration and phase instability. Defect sites at grain boundaries and surfaces are believed to serve as initiation points for these degradation pathways, but demonstrating that a single passivation additive can simultaneously improve stability across UV, moisture, and thermal stressors—and linking this improvement to suppressed decomposition as evidenced by reduced PbI₂ formation—was necessary to establish defect passivation as a unified strategy for operational durability rather than an efficiency-only optimization.",
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                        "content": "Despite significant progress in perovskite solar cell efficiencies through compositional engineering and interfacial modifications, achieving a PCE approaching 20% in a conventional MAPbI₃-based mesoporous architecture with a simple additive strategy remained challenging. The systematic improvement of all three photovoltaic parameters—short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and fill factor—simultaneously, rather than trading one for another, is particularly difficult because defect passivation can sometimes introduce resistive barriers or morphological degradation. A passivation agent derived from a commodity chemical that simultaneously boosts Jsc, Voc, and FF to yield a competitive PCE near 20%, with corroboration from both J–V and stabilized power output measurements across a statistically significant number of devices, would demonstrate that rational defect management can close the gap to higher-performance perovskite compositions without abandoning the simplicity of MAPbI₃.",
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                        "content": "In the field of perovskite solar cells, undercoordinated Pb²⁺ ions at film surfaces and grain boundaries constitute a major class of electronic defects that trap charge carriers and promote non-radiative recombination, directly limiting device open-circuit voltage and fill factor. Prior passivation approaches have employed carboxyl-containing molecules such as organic dyes, thiophene-based dicarboxylic acids, and polymeric carboxyl pendants to coordinate with these Pb²⁺ defects, but many of these molecules require multi-step synthesis or are not commodity chemicals. A key unresolved question was whether a simple, commercially available small molecule bearing a single carboxyl group could achieve strong and unambiguous coordinative binding to Pb²⁺ in the MAPbI₃ lattice, as evidenced by direct spectroscopic signatures of the chemical interaction, thereby providing a well-defined chemical foundation for both defect passivation and crystal growth regulation in a single additive.",
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            "paper:1000942282762879025": {
                "id": "1000942282762879025",
                "doi": "10.1016/j.cej.2024.152370",
                "publication_id": "3750",
                "publication_name": "Chemical Engineering Journal _ ",
                "zh_title": "用于钙钛矿太阳能电池进展的缺陷性质及其钝化工程",
                "en_title": "Nature of defects and their passivation engineering for advancements in perovskite solar cells",
                "authors": "",
                "publication_date": null,
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                "cover_date_start": "2024-05-23",
                "area": "Engineering Technology, Engineering, Materials Engineering",
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                "created_at": "0001-01-01T00:00:00Z",
                "en_abstract": "Perovskite solar cells have emerged as promising photovoltaic technology due to their remarkable efficiency and cost-effectiveness. However, various defects within the perovskite layer significantly hamper device performance. This review provides a comprehensive examination of these defects, encompassing point defects, surface irregularities, grain boundaries, and ion migration, elucidating their detrimental impact on device efficiency, particularly through increased charge carrier recombination. Through the establishment of a detailed schematic model, we illustrate how these defects influence the tuning of critical photovoltaic parameters such as open circuit voltage (V oc ) and current density (J sc ), offering deeper insights into their effects on solar cell performance. Furthermore, recent advancements in defect passivation strategies are explored, focusing on surface passivation techniques such as interactions with Lewis acids and bases, treatment with zwitterion molecules, and the utilization of ammonia salts. Moreover, this review discusses the challenges and opportunities associated with defect passivation, providing valuable insights into future research directions aimed at enhancing the stability and efficiency of perovskite solar cells. By consolidating existing knowledge and offering innovative perspectives, this work aims to contribute significantly to the advancement of photovoltaics and defect engineering.",
                "cas_zone": "1",
                "jcr_zone": "Q1",
                "impact_factor": 13.3
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            "paper:1055822184880013358": {
                "id": "1055822184880013358",
                "doi": "10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.176066",
                "publication_id": "2082",
                "publication_name": "Journal of Alloys and Compounds _ Journal of Alloys and Compounds",
                "zh_title": "铈稀土离子增强内建电场以实现高效稳定的钙钛矿太阳能电池的高效载流子提取",
                "en_title": "Cerium rare-earth ions reinforced built-in electric field to enable efficient carrier extraction for highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells",
                "authors": "",
                "publication_date": null,
                "available_online": null,
                "cover_date_start": "2024-11-01",
                "area": "Material science, Engineering, Materials Engineering",
                "research_categories": null,
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                "created_at": "0001-01-01T00:00:00Z",
                "en_abstract": "Perovskite solar cells prepared by inorganic-organic three-dimensional hybrid have good power conversion efficiency, but their operational stability remains a major challenge for commercialization. The defect of perovskite is an important factor restricting its charge dynamics and stability. Here, the rare earth metal chloride CeCl3 is introduced into perovskite solution to passivate the defects, where the Pb2+ part of the B position is replaced by Ce3+. The prepared films have the characteristics of increasing grain size, enhancing carrier mobility and excellent crystallinity. Meanwhile, via passivating interface defects and improving carrier transport capacity, the generation of non-radiative recombination is reduced, the carrier migration length is extended, and the device performance is improved. The results show that the PCE of the standard device is only 65 % after 2880 h of N2 atmosphere at room temperature, while the efficiency of the device doped with CeCl3 can remain at 93 %. When the unencapsulated sample was placed in an air environment (40–60 % humidity), the control sample was reduced to 72 % at 1060 h, while the CeCl3 was maintained at 87 %. Additionally, the reduction of residual stress in the perovskite layer also provides good bending stability for the flexible target device. These results show that the incorporation of rare earth metal ions is an effective way to stabilize and improve the efficiency of the device.",
                "cas_zone": "2",
                "jcr_zone": "Q1",
                "impact_factor": 6.2
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            "paper:1220327955893321751": {
                "id": "1220327955893321751",
                "doi": "10.1002/smll.202511139",
                "publication_id": "2063",
                "publication_name": "Small",
                "zh_title": "全向多型缺陷钝化通过双有机钾盐实现高效稳定的钙钛矿太阳能电池",
                "en_title": "Omnidirectional Multi-Type Defect Passivation Enables Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells via Dual Organic Potassium Salts",
                "authors": "",
                "publication_date": null,
                "available_online": null,
                "cover_date_start": "2025-11-06",
                "area": "Material science, materials science, multidisciplinary, chemistry, physical, physics, applied, physics, condensed matter, nanoscience & nanotechnology, chemistry, multidisciplinary",
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                "created_at": "0001-01-01T00:00:00Z",
                "en_abstract": "Despite significant advancements in perovskite solar cells, their defect states remain a critical bottleneck limiting further breakthroughs in efficiency and stability. Herein, an omnidirectional multi-type defect passivation strategy is judiciously proposed, which achieves comprehensive defect passivation within the bulk, at surfaces, and throughout interfaces by introducing two organic potassium salts, potassium 4-formylphenyltrifluoroborate and potassium propylxanthate, into the perovskite precursor and interfacial layer, respectively. The highly electronegative functional groups from the organic anion moiety can not only form hydrogen bonds with positively charged FA⁺, but also act as typical Lewis bases to stabilize uncoordinated Pb2⁺ defects. Meanwhile, the free K⁺ can suppress internal ion migration by binding with iodide ions, thereby comprehensively eliminating various defects that are responsible for non-radiative recombination in the device. Ultimately, the device achieves a remarkable PCE power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.78% with a negligible hysteresis and an open-circuit voltage loss of ≈349 mV. Impressively, benefiting from the hydrophobic interface protection and throughout defect elimination, the resultant devices exhibit admirable stabilities, with retaining 88.7% of its initial PCE after 1100 h of continuous thermal stress at 85 °C and 86.8% after 1400 h of aging under 40 ± 5% relative humidity, respectively.",
                "cas_zone": "2",
                "jcr_zone": "Q1",
                "impact_factor": 12.9
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            "paper:812399018939252736": {
                "id": "812399018939252736",
                "doi": "10.1021/acsami.1c03637",
                "publication_id": "2064",
                "publication_name": "ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces _ ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces",
                "zh_title": "使用2,9-二甲基-4,7-二苯基-1,10-菲啰啉双边修饰钙钛矿层的高效稳定钙钛矿太阳能电池",
                "en_title": "Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells Using Bathocuproine Bilateral-Modified Perovskite Layers",
                "authors": "Renjie Chen | Biyu Long | Song Wang | Yuning Liu | Jueyao Bai | Sumei Huang | Huili Li | Xiaohong Chen",
                "publication_date": "2021-6-2",
                "available_online": "2021-5-21",
                "cover_date_start": "2021-05-21",
                "area": "material science, chemical sciences, macromolecular and materials chemistry, physical chemistry, engineering, materials engineering",
                "research_categories": "[\"Chemical Sciences\", \"Macromolecular and Materials Chemistry\", \"Physical Chemistry\", \"Engineering\", \"Materials Engineering\"]",
                "keywords": "",
                "created_at": "2026-05-23T02:43:31+08:00",
                "cas_zone": "2",
                "jcr_zone": "Q1",
                "impact_factor": 8.8
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            "paper:812474127716712451": {
                "id": "812474127716712451",
                "doi": "10.1039/d1tc00886b",
                "publication_id": "2076",
                "publication_name": "Journal of Materials Chemistry C _ J. Mater. Chem. C",
                "zh_title": "用烟酸实现高效缺陷钝化以制备高性能稳定的钙钛矿太阳能电池",
                "en_title": "Efficient defect passivation with niacin for high-performance and stable perovskite solar cells",
                "authors": "Jing Ren | Shurong Wang | Jianxing Xia | Chengbo Li | Lisha Xie | Hongcai He | Xiaobin Niu | Qiang Zhao | Feng Hao",
                "publication_date": "",
                "available_online": "2021",
                "cover_date_start": "2021-01-01",
                "area": "material science, materials science, multidisciplinary, physics, applied",
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                "created_at": "2026-05-23T03:00:42+08:00",
                "cas_zone": "3",
                "jcr_zone": "Q1",
                "impact_factor": 5.1
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            "paper:812579220621361153": {
                "id": "812579220621361153",
                "doi": "10.1002/aenm.202001958",
                "publication_id": "2018",
                "publication_name": "Advanced Energy Materials _ Adv. Energy Mater.",
                "zh_title": "完全缺陷钝化使钙钛矿太阳能电池在空气中运行时效率达到21% ",
                "en_title": "Full Defects Passivation Enables 21% Efficiency Perovskite Solar Cells Operating in Air",
                "authors": "Xixia Liu | Zhigen Yu | Tian Wang | Ka Lok Chiu | Fen Lin | Hao Gong | Liming Ding | Yuanhang Cheng",
                "publication_date": "2020-10",
                "available_online": "2020-8-12",
                "cover_date_start": "2020-08-12",
                "area": "material science, chemical sciences, macromolecular and materials chemistry, physical chemistry, engineering, materials engineering",
                "research_categories": "[\"Chemical Sciences\", \"Macromolecular and Materials Chemistry\", \"Physical Chemistry\", \"Engineering\", \"Materials Engineering\"]",
                "keywords": "[{\"en_name\": \"carrier dynamics\", \"ch_name\": \"\"}, {\"en_name\": \"density functional theory calculations\", \"ch_name\": \"\"}, {\"en_name\": \"full defects passivation\", \"ch_name\": \"\"}, {\"en_name\": \"perovskite solar cells\", \"ch_name\": \"\"}]",
                "created_at": "2026-05-23T02:11:51+08:00",
                "cas_zone": "1",
                "jcr_zone": "Q1",
                "impact_factor": 26.3
            }
        }
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